Engineering achievements of ancient rome. Architectural achievements of ancient rome (2024)

Introduction

The concept " civilization"Arose in the 18th century. in connection with the concept “ the culture". It comes from the Latin "civilus" - civil, state, and is synonymous with the concept of "culture" - a historically determined level of development of society and man. The concept of "civilization" is used to characterize the material and spiritual levels of development of certain historical epochs, which, in turn, can be called civilizations.

Thus, the concepts of "civilization" and "culture" mutually complement each other. Ancient civilization or culture call the culture Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The period of the emergence of ancient civilization dates back to the XXV century. BC e.

The era of antiquity ended in 476 AD. e. - after the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Ancient culture is the foremother of other cultures: Byzantine, European, Russian.

In my work, I would like to consider the main achievements of ancient civilization, including the spiritual and material order.

The culture of Ancient Greece and its achievements.

It is now believed that the history of Ancient Greece begins around the turn of the 3rd millennium BC. e., when bronze tools of labor were ubiquitous on its territory. From this period, the remains of the fortress walls, marble figurines, painted vessels were found.

At the turn of the III - II millennium BC. the first cities appear on the Cyclades. The center of the established Minoan civilization becomes the island of Crete.

Life in Crete centered around palaces - labyrinths decorated with wall paintings - frescoes. Religion and theocracy played a huge role in the life of the Minoans - a special form of royal power, in which secular and spiritual power belonged to one person.

By the middle of the XIV century. BC e. Crete was conquered by the Achaeans.

Achaean (Mycenaean) culture adopted from its predecessor fresco painting, the construction of a water supply system, as well as the pantheon of gods and styles of clothing. The type of tombs changed: the mine tombs were replaced by the tholos - a domed tomb.

The main achievement of the Achaeans is the linear syllabic letter B, derived from the linear word letter A.

The Cretan-Mycenaean civilization ceased to exist in the 13th century. BC e., when the Iron Age began.

The next period in the history of Ancient Greece - Homeric period: the great Homer created the famous poems: The Iliad and The Odyssey, which are among the greatest literary monuments of mankind. Few other monuments of this era have survived, mainly vases and terracotta figurines.

Archaic period Greek history covers the VIII - VI centuries. BC.

At this time, the Great Colonization took place, as a result of which the Greek world ceased to be isolated. The Greeks began to actively interact with other civilizations. In Greek culture, innovations appear, borrowed from other cultures: alphabetical writing - from the Phoenicians, minting of coins - from the Lydians.

During this period Great division of labor, that is, the separation of mental labor from physical labor, which became possible due to an increase in labor productivity, an increase in the surplus product through the use of cheaper and more efficient iron tools. The created economic conditions allowed some of the free citizens to engage in philosophy, art, mythology, politics, travel, history.

The origin and development of ancient Greek science was greatly influenced by the science of Ancient Egypt and Babylon. Develop astronomy, geometry, mathematics(Pythagoras). Are emerging historiography, geography(Aristotle, Eratosthenes, Ptolemy).

The first philosophical system appears - natural philosophy.

Ancient Greek art of that period was strongly influenced by Egyptian and Middle Eastern culture and architecture. Elements of these and other foreign cultures were creatively reworked by the Greeks and organically entered the ancient Greek culture.

In the literature of the archaic era, the leading role passes from the epic to lyric poetry(Archilochus, Sappho, Alkey, Anacreon); by the end of the 6th century. BC. how a special genre is formed fable(Aesop).

In the VIII century. BC. first appeared theatre, a character was singled out from the chorus - actor.

By the VI century. BC. issued architectural order(column) in his Doric and ionic styles.

Also, during the archaic period, a synthesis of architecture and sculpture takes place - the temples are decorated with reliefs on the outside, statues of the deity to whom the temple is dedicated are placed inside the temples.

In the art of this period, single sculptures of two types appear: kourosa- a naked youth and bark- a draped woman. This period is characterized by multi-figured sculptural compositions and reliefs.

The main monument is ancient Greek ceramics: Corinthian vases, Attic black-figure and red-figure vases.

In 776 BC. emerged Olympic Games.

In 449 BC. a new period in the development of Greek culture begins - classical, which played a significant role in the development of ancient civilization.

In this era, the following reached the greatest prosperity: the medicine(Hippocrates, V century BC), philosophy(Democritus, Socrates, who created the sophist school); v literature main genres become tragedy(Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides) and comedy(Aristophanes).

Are becoming ubiquitous educational institutions: schools, palestra, gymnasium, ephebia. The form of higher education can be considered circles, grouped around prominent scientists (rhetoricians, sophists, doctors).

Reaches its bloom realistic sculpture made of marble and bronze. The work of the great sculptors of the 5th century BC. are distinguished by monumentality, striving for harmony, proportionality, the creation of ideal images of gods and people: Phidias(statues: "Athena - warrior", "Athena - Parthenos", "Zeus"), Miron("Discobolus" statue), Polyclete(statues: "Hera" made of gold and ivory, "Dorifor", "Spear-bearer", "Wounded Amazon").

Among the painters of that time, it should be noted Polygnata and Apollodorus, who opened the game of chiaroscuro. But their painting has not survived.

The main monument of that time is vase painting.

In the classical era, the Corinthian style of the order took shape, many temples and structures were built (the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Acropolis Ensemble, which includes the Propylaea (front gate), the Temple of Niki Apteros, the Parthenon and the Erechtheion with the famous portico of the Caryatids).

V era of crisis(IV century BC) - during the decline of public life - in ancient Greece became popular cynical school philosophy (Antisthenes and Diogenes of Sinop). A well-known philosopher of this period was Plato, who founded his own school - the Academy, which existed for almost a thousand years.

Natural sciences, history (Xenophon) and rhetoric- the science of oratory (Isocrates, Demosthenes)

In architecture, decorative elements, the Corinthian style, and round structures begin to prevail.

The main achievements of this era can be considered architecture(stone theaters at Epidaurus, theater of Dionysus in Athens, mausoleum at Halicarnassus) and sculpture(Praxiteles - "Aphrodite of Cnidus", Scopas - "Hercules" and "Bacchante", Lysippus - "Anaxiomenus", "Hercules", "Hermes"). Lysippos also created sculptural portraits of Socrates, Alexander the Great.

The last era of Greek civilization was Hellenism. During this era, mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, georaphy, natural science, philosophy received the greatest development, and this development was associated with such names as Archimedes(school of peripatetics), Euclid(elementary geometry), Eratosthenes,Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus of Alexandria(astronomy), Heron of Alexandria(Mechanics), Herophilus and Erasistratus(the medicine).

During this period were created libraries, the most famous of which are Alexandria and Pergamon.

The most prominent representatives of the literature of that time are: Apolonius of Rhodes, Callimachus and Theocritus, who wrote in a new poetic genre - idyllic, later reborn into bucolic poetry, Menander, who created realistic everyday comedy.

Widespread in the era of Hellenism received mimes- short sketches. Their author was Herod.

Philosophy during the Hellenistic era had a number of features: eclecticism(the desire to combine elements of different schools), epic focus... The most famous were the philosophical directions: epicureanism(the founder of the school - Epicurus) and cynicism, from whom he separated under Zeno stoicism. The philosophy of that period was characterized by a religious bias.

The most interesting monuments of that time are the Pharos lighthouse, the Tower of the Winds, the reliefs of the Pergamon altar of Zeus, Aphrodite from the island of Melos (Venus de Milo), "Nika of Samothrace"; sculptural groups "Laocoon", "Farnese bull"; portrait of Demosthenes; bronze that has not come down to us Colossus of rhodes 35 m high.

Thus, ancient Greek culture had a huge impact on the development of European civilization. The achievements of Greek art partially formed the basis of the aesthetic representations of subsequent eras. Without Greek philosophy, the development of either medieval theology or the philosophy of modern times would have been impossible. Until now in their general outline reached the Greek education system.

The importance of ancient Greek culture is so great that it is called the "golden age" of mankind. This culture is the most humane, it still gives people wisdom, beauty and courage to this day.

Culture of Ancient Rome and its achievements

Roman culture, relying on Greek culture, was able not only to develop it, but also to introduce a new one, inherent only in the Roman state.

Ancient Greece in the 2nd - 1st centuries BC. was conquered by Rome, and the center of ancient culture shifted to Italy.

The ancestor of the Roman civilization is considered Etruscan civilization located on the Apennine Peninsula. The Etruscans created their own system of counting with peculiar numbers, as well as writing, which were later borrowed by the Romans.

The architectural structures of the Etruscans were stone, they were the first to build buildings with a domed vault. The cultural monuments are tombs, sarcophagi, burial urns, weapons, jewelry.

The founding of Rome (753 BC) is the beginning of the creation of the Roman Empire. The city of Rome developed as a city of the Greek type. The Romans surrounded it with a stone wall, built a sewerage system and a water supply system, created the first circus for gladiatorial fights. The Romans borrowed much in their culture from ancient Greek and Etruscan cultures. The first temple in Rome - the Temple of Jupiter - was built by Etruscan craftsmen.

In the IV - III centuries. BC. Rome becomes republic, on the territory of which the Greek language and Greek customs begin to spread. Etruscan writing is replaced by Greek (Latin). Arises oratory(Cicero). Created theatre.

The most famous representatives literature at that time there were: Livy Andronicus, Plautus, Terentius, Lucretius, Catullus, Cato the Elder, Varro, Cicero.

Philosophical systems were not created in Rome. The most famous were the Greek schools of the Stoics and Epicureans.

Evolved architecture: The Romans widely used in the construction of arches, vaults, domes, pillars, pilasters, concrete, triumphal arches, aqueducts, bridges, basilicas and amphitheaters.

In sculpture, the Romans adhered to the Greek canons, however, two new styles arose: portrait statues (busts) and togatus- statues depicting orators in a toga.

From sciences has received great development jurisprudence- the science of law.

Roman bridges and roads

Many structures built by Roman builders and engineers have survived to this day. Among them are sections of roads, ancient aqueducts-aqueducts, as well as bridges over rivers and mountain gorges. A prime example is the bridge over the Garde River in southern France. Bridges were built earlier, but the most ancient of those that have come down to us are stone crossings, erected by the Romans on the basis of concrete and metal.

Each fountain of the eternal city is shrouded in many legends. If you throw a coin into the de Trevi fountain, the one who threw it will definitely return again. Not sparing two coins, a person will surely find his love in Rome. De Trevi is the most famous fountain in the city. The centerpiece of the fountain is Poseidon. It is surrounded by sea horses, newts, shells and rocks. According to one of the legends, the fountain got its name because of the intersection of three roads. There are three streets leading to the fountain.

Not a single ancient civilization could do without roads, but it was the builders of republican Rome who began to build paved roads. The continuously fighting Romans got tired of stopping the movement of their legions every time the rainy season came - and they began to pave the roads with stones so that the chariots would not get stuck in the mud.

It has become a tradition for many peoples to arrange merry festivities on the first of April, various deceptions and jokes. This tradition dates back about two and a half thousand years. The April Fools' custom appeared in ancient Rome during the era of the kings. The poet Ovid gives an interesting legend about how the second Roman king, Numa Pompilius, managed to outwit Jupiter himself. To master the secrets of the elements and stop the lingering rain, the Roman king entered into an intellectual combat with the chief of the gods. The Thunderer promised to fulfill his request, making it a condition to dissect the head. The king, without hesitation, cut the head of the onion. Unsatisfied Jupiter demanded a sacrifice with human head... To which the Roman king only cut off a strand of hair. "I demand a living soul!" cried Jupiter, who had lost his composure. But Numa was not taken aback and at the same moment killed the fish. The Supreme God, fearing for his authority, was forced to be content with the sacrifices presented to him and reveal to the cunning king the secret of taming thunder and lightning.

This legend served as the basis for the Romans to celebrate April as the time when man showed himself smarter than God, with funny pranks, tricks and deceptions. The April custom long ago crossed the borders of Italy and, together with other Roman traditions, spread to many countries.

The examples given only to a small extent reveal the influence that the Roman civilization had on subsequent eras. The discoveries and innovations made by the Romans in the field of architecture and construction methods find application in modern architecture. The principles of governing a huge empire today are preserved in the European Community, as the ideal of state structure. The EU seeks to unite its member countries with a common monetary system, uniform taxation rules, a centralized government and an international arbitration court. Ancient ideology and literature, almost forgotten in the Middle Ages, served as the basis for the Renaissance.

The Western Roman Empire officially ceased to exist in 476, after the overthrow of the emperor Romulus Augustulus by the barbarians. But the Roman way of life became so widespread that it could not simply disappear without leaving a trace on the dusty roads of history.

Irina Nekhoroshkina. Italica No. 2 2000.

Great changes took place in the culture of Roman society in the period from the 3rd to the 1st century BC. There is an increase in the number of educated people, the need for which is satisfied by the "import" of educated Greek slaves. To raise the reputation of Rome in the conquered countries, the upper stratum begins to increasingly actively master the Hellenic culture. Wealthy people send their sons to Athens, Ephesus and other cities in Greece and Asia Minor to listen to lectures by renowned orators and philosophers. Some of the latter migrate to Rome, as, for example, did the historian Polybius (202 - 120 BC), who wrote the multivolume History, which glorifies the great mission of Rome.

Literature also developed under Greek influence, and a whole galaxy of playwrights and poets appeared, among whom Plautus (c. 250-184 BC) and Terence (190-159 BC) should be named. ), whose comedies have survived to this day. From the first Roman tragedians, we know the name of Titus Livius Andronicus (280-204 BC), who translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Among the poets of this time, the most famous is Lucilius, who wrote poems on everyday topics, ridiculed the passion for luxury. Roman sculptors and painters depict scenes from Greek myths in their works. Copies of Greek sculptures are gaining immense popularity and wide demand.

Art culture experienced the greatest rise in the era of the Empire. Among the arts, architecture occupies a leading position, in the development of which the architect and engineer Vitruvius played a special role. In his treatise "Ten Books on Architecture", he summarized the experience of Greek and Roman architecture and developed the concept of a city with a central forum (square), as well as methods for the construction of various building mechanisms. It should be noted that the forum has become a very common type of Roman building. Six such forums were built. The first - Forum Romanum - was built in the 6th century BC, and then five more forums were added to it - Caesar, Augustus, Bespasian, Nerva and Trajan. The most grandiose was the Forum of Trajan, built by Apollodorus of Damascus and consisting of several structures: a courtyard surrounded by columns, a triumphal arch, a basilica temple.

Roman architecture reaches its true heyday under Augustus. According to the historian Suetonius, Augustus declared that having found Rome bricked, he would leave it marble. He coped with his task in many ways. Under him, old churches were restored and new ones were erected, among which the temples of Apollo and Vesta, which were part of his palace complex, became famous. He builds his own forum - the forum of Augustus, which continued the forum of Caesar and became one of the most magnificent. Under Augustus, his companion Agrippa builds the Pantheon - the temple of all the gods, which is a gigantic cylindrical body with a diameter of 43 m, covered with a large spherical dome. The temple has become one of the true masterpieces of architecture. After August, the development of architecture continues. Of the monuments created, the famous Colosseum or the Flavian amphitheater deserves special attention, which accommodated more than 50 thousand spectators and was intended for gladiator fights and other spectacles. V Everyday life In the empire, thermal baths are becoming fashionable - public baths, which are becoming a kind of centers of culture and recreation, since they include not only baths and steam rooms, but also libraries, reading rooms, meeting rooms, sports and games. The most grandiose and famous were the Baths of Caracalla.

Hadrian's villa in Tivoli is also quite remarkable. Located in a picturesque park, it is an ensemble that reproduces individual buildings and corners of Athens and Alexandria, in particular the Academy of Athens and Lyceum. This circ*mstance has made the villa extremely popular today - in connection with the emergence of postmodern architecture, since it is considered the first historical monument of such architecture.

The reign of Emperor Augustus has been called the "golden age" of Roman poetry. He went down in history as a ruler during whose times great poets and writers lived. Around his friend, the rich man and ruler Gaius Maecenas (7-8 BC), whose name became a household name, formed a circle of writers who glorified Roman antiquity. The most famous of these were Virgil (70-19 BC), Horace (65-8 BC) and Ovid (43 BC -18 BC). AD). Virgil, the main figure in Roman poetry, created a collection of pastoral songs "Bucolics" and a didactic poem "Georgiki", which advises farmers and praises nature. The peak of Virgil's creativity was the unfinished epic poem "Aeneid", which was written by order of Augustus and glorified the history of the Roman people and the ancestors of the family of Augustus. The greatest Roman lyric poet Horace was also a sincere friend of Maecenas. Horace's work is surprisingly multifaceted in subject matter, genre, style and metrics. He wrote lyric poetry, philosophical poems, angry satires, in which he ridiculed the vices of Roman society. In his works, epicureanism is combined with stoicism. He influenced the poetry of modern times. His treatise "Science of Poetry" became the theoretical basis of classicism. Ovid achieved great success, primarily with his love lyrics, as well as the mythological poem "Metamorphoses", which tells about the transformation of people and gods into animals, plants and stars. His poem "Fasts" tells about the Roman religious holidays.

In the era of the Empire, science is developing very successfully. The most prominent scientists were Pliny the Elder (23 / 24-79), Ptolemy (83 -161) and Galen (129 - 199). The first of them, being also a writer, wrote the multivolume "Natural History" (37 volumes), which became a real encyclopedia in all areas of the then science. In addition to knowledge about nature, it contains extensive information on the history of ancient art, the history and life of Rome. Ptolemy created the world famous geocentric system of the world, which made it possible to determine the position of the planets in the sky. His work "Almagest" summarized all the knowledge of antiquity in the field of astronomy. Ptolemy also owns works in optics, mathematics and geography. The physician Galen summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient medicine and presented it in the form of a single teaching that had a great influence on the subsequent development of natural science. In his fundamental work On Parts of the Human Body, he was the first to give an anatomical and physiological description of the human body as a whole. Galen set up experiments on animals and came close to discovering the decisive role of nerves for motor reflexes and blood circulation.

In the humanities, the activities of the historians Titus Livy (59 BC - 17 AD) and Tacitus (c. 58 - 117) deserve special emphasis. The first is the author of the grandiose "Roman History from the Founding of the City" (142 volumes), which reveals the meaning of the "Roman myth" and traces the history of the transformation of Rome from a small town on the Tiber into a world power. Tacitus in his main works - "Annals" and "History" (14 volumes) - sets out the history of Rome and the Roman Empire, and also gives rich information about the life of the ancient Germans.

Roman art has absorbed all those influences that not a single phenomenon of Roman culture has escaped. Here we will find traces of all the tribes that once inhabited the Apennine Peninsula. But just like in all other aspects of culture, in Roman art, on this basis, a new quality arose and was established that distinguishes it from the arts of other European cultures.

Dance. Painting of the tomb in Corneto

The Romans absorbed much of what was characteristic of the Etruscans, but most of all it affected the Roman architecture, where thoughtful design solutions and high artistic taste were combined. The architecture of tombs, temples and residential buildings included complex elements: arches, columns, different kinds coatings and ceilings, featuring a wide variety. A fresco was used in the decoration of the premises. Etruscan frescoes are unusually emotional, they still attract with bright, rich colors, exquisite patterns.

Roman culture was oriented mainly towards an urban and at the same time militarized society, so the Romans built not only tombs, residential buildings, gutters, water pipes, but also bridges, roads, fortress walls. The skill of the builders was high: the Appian Way (312 BC) has survived to this day, it is covered with a composition reminiscent of modern concrete. At the same time, an underground water supply system was built from tuff.

Roman architecture is distinguished by a strict silhouette, the Romans were more interested in the outline of the building than in its decor, this is the peculiarity of Roman buildings in comparison with Greek or Etruscan ones. The most significant place where the most outstanding buildings were erected is the Roman Forum (Forum romanum), where each of the rulers strove to leave a memory of themselves with this or that structure. Here were the most beautiful buildings of a religious and commercial nature, various government and entertainment institutions. There were created basilicas- oblong buildings with a higher middle part, which has a separate roof, and a colonnade separating the side parts from the central part. They housed shopping malls, courts, money changers and other offices. The Romans were the first to use lime mortar in construction, which made it possible to overlap rather significant structures, for example, the Pantheon - the temple of all the gods. Numerous triumphs associated with the military victories of the Romans led to the construction of triumphal arches, which were decorated with rich reliefs and sculptures.

Political conflicts are reflected in the architecture of Rome, as well as in other forms of art, but architecture demonstrates the main features of its time, conveying its spirit: the more deplorable life and the prospects of statehood became, the more splendor and significance the buildings acquired. The most magnificent buildings of the period of the empire can be attributed to the time of the reign of Nero. The emperor Trajan(53-117) ordered to erect a huge column 33 meters high and with a belt of reliefs, which depicts war trophies, 200 meters long. Under Vespasian and Tite(75-80) the Flavian amphitheater, known as the Colosseum, is built. “Its oval elliptical arena has axles 54 by 86 m long, the length of the general axes of the building is 156 and 188 m, the height of the outer wall is 48.5 m, the performances were watched simultaneously by 50 thousand spectators, who could quickly fill and release through 80 entrances and exits. places ”. It was a multi-storey building, the lower floors of which were located underground, they housed menageries, a school of gladiators, huge reservoirs of water that filled the arena of the Colosseum for performances of sea battles. In architectural structures, Rome one way or another asserted its military, state, political significance in the eyes of every citizen.

Sculpture of Rome, on the contrary, is strict, static and dry, gravitating towards the portrait genre, there are too few images of gods in it. The Roman sculptor is interested in details, accuracy in conveying similarities. Sculptural portraits of rulers, and even ordinary mortals, are not only far from beauty and harmony in the transmission of nature, but, on the contrary, it seems that this ugliness, and sometimes ugliness, is emphasized.

The first literary works, like much in Rome, were associated with the practical activities of people: oral poetry, songs of priests who accompanied various rituals, work songs (when harvesting grapes), songs of shepherds, rowers. There were songs lullabies, funeral, wedding or feast (banquet) songs, in which they could sing of the "glory of the ancestors." A special place was occupied by songs associated with the holidays of fertility. At this holiday "... laughter, abuse and foul language were seen as help to the life-giving forces of nature, and also ... as a remedy for evil demons" envious "of human happiness." The same technique was used in the praise of the triumphants, next to the chariot of which the soldiers ran, reviling the heroes of the occasion in every possible way. Moreover, "... folk custom allowed public outrage as a means of public influence on a person who committed an unseemly act. Under the windows of the guilty's house, they arranged a cat's concert or “carried” (as this was the name of this desecration) on the street, surrounded by a crowd ”[ibid., 270]. In the laws of the XII tables, even punishments for “bad songs” were assumed, so they could be a powerful means of influencing a person.

For a long time, poetry was nameless. The first author with a name is considered a statesman (censor, consul and dictator) Appius Claudius the Blind, at which the first significant road and water supply were built, but most often the first Roman poet is called Libya Andronica, a slave from Greece, a freedman, who translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin and transposed it into the so-called Saturnian verse, that is, a poetic meter inherent in ancient verses associated with the worship of the god Saturn.

In the III-II centuries BC. e. the theater plays an important role in Rome, the plots of the plays are borrowed from the Greeks, but the characters are of Roman origin. Especially interesting Plautus(middle of the 3rd century - approx. 184 BC), who created many comedies in which the Roman public enthusiastically recognized the customs and deeds of the people of his time. And although Plautus most often placed the action of his comedies in Athens, and Roman conditions forbade making direct political allusions and naming real names, but the Roman viewer all the time came across in Plautus's comedies on topics that were close enough to him and understandable.

With the development of the political struggle in Rome, oratory flourishes, without which political discussion could not develop. Naturally, rhetoric required eloquence, combining a sense of the word, the ability to construct individual phrases and the whole speech as a whole with clear logic, a philosophical understanding of the subject. He became such an orator in the 1st century BC. e. Cicero, who began his activities under the dictatorship of Sulla. He was an unusually flamboyant speaker, his style characterized by passion, tension and logic. Each of his phrases, short and precise, was imbued with inner musicality, for example, here is the beginning of his speech at the grave of his friend: "Utinam te prius mortuum videsses!" - exclaims Cicero. The translation sounds a little more stretched: "Oh, if only you had seen me dead before!"

At the time of Augustus, Roman poetry flourished, but it was available only to a select few, being a form of elite activity. We will touch only those names without which Roman culture would be impoverished: Virgil, Horace and Ovid. Virgil he wrote the Aeneid on the model of Homer's Iliad, in which he outlined the mythological history of Rome, raising the clan of Augustus to the Olympian gods, through Aeneas, the son of Aphrodite. But apart from this epic work, translated into different languages, Virgil, a native of the Roman lower class, writes the didactic poem "Georgiki" ("On Agriculture"), where he sets out the basics of agriculture: the first book is devoted to farming, the second to the cultivation of trees and vines, the third to cattle breeding, and the fourth to beekeeping. He glorifies both rural labor and hard work as the main virtue of the farmer, shows the moral value of agricultural labor. Many poets of subsequent generations highly appreciated the poetry of Virgil, his deep knowledge and education, and the great Dante in the poem "The Divine Comedy" chose Virgil as his guide to all the circles of hell.

Another great name for Roman poetry is Horace- almost a common name for a poet with a huge lyrical gift. His father was a freedman slave who managed to educate his son. Horace notes the unrighteous luxury of Rome, and over the years, filled with wisdom, writes about the frailty of earthly existence, about the happiness of the “golden mean” (this expression belongs to him). He best expressed his concept of happiness in the following verses:

This is what my desires were: not a vast field,

Garden, from the house near a continuously flowing source,

To this the forest is small. And better and more sent

The gods are immortal to me: I do not disturb them by asking more.

Besides, that they should keep all these gifts for me.

Horace distinguishes from other, earlier poets, a conscious attitude to his poetry, he penned the famous poem "Monument", a free translation of which by A. Pushkin knows every schoolchild.

The name of Ovid is also found in Pushkin: his Eugene Onegin knew "the science of tender passion, which Nazon sang." Publius Nazon Ovid(43 BC - 18 AD) did write about love. Collections of his poems are devoted to this, and especially - the parody-instructive poem "Science of Love", in which the reader finds practical guidelines where you can meet the subject of worship, how to draw attention to yourself, how to arouse and maintain passion. How to get rid of love if it does not bring joy is said in the humorous poem "Medicine for Love". Ovid's mocking gift also manifested itself in another work - "Metamorphoses", where he uses myths about transformations that exist in both Greek and Roman culture. However, Ovid soon fell into disgrace: Augustus began to eradicate adultery and debauchery of Rome and issued a law against those who violate the sanctity of the family. In these conditions, Ovid's poems and especially "The Science of Love" fell out of place, and Ovid was exiled from Rome as a violator of public morality. But the lightness of his verse, the sharpness of the plots, for example, in "Metamorphoses", so attracted the attention of contemporaries that in his footsteps another creator of this genre, who worked already at the end of Roman rule, in the II century AD, followed in his footsteps. e. - Apuleius, author of the book of transformations "Golden Donkey". This large prose work does not repeat Ovid's plots, it is a parodic didactic and philosophical narration in which the amusing, lustful, moralizing, satirical adventures of the protagonist are a magnificent picture of the mores of Roman society.

The question of the science of this period remains controversial. Indeed, we cannot find any significant theory in any direction of Roman scientific thought. But to say that Roman science does not exist is also impossible. The main thing for all Roman thinkers is the practical activity of man. Treatises and even poetry are devoted to this. The most famous poem Tita Lucrezia Kara(96-55 BC) "On the nature of things." This is a philosophical work in which he is close to materialistic views of the world when he tries to explain the origin natural phenomena:

Nothing perishes that seems to perish completely,

Since nature always generates one from the other

And it does not allow anything to be born without the death of another.

Lucretius says that all the diversity of the world arises from primary bodies, atoms, but each combination of atoms is not eternal, therefore all earthly bodies, and the earth itself, the sun and the sky are only a unit in an infinite set of worlds. He owns the idea that there is no need to fear death, for as long as there is life, there is still no death, and when death comes, then there is no life, there is no us. Lucretius in his work expounded the ideas of other thinkers, mostly Greek. The treatises of other Roman thinkers dealt mainly with issues of statehood and law, morality and the activities of farmers.

So Rome arose and collapsed, choking on its own successes. He left vast spaces and many tribes, attached to both the achievements and the vices of Rome. Later, there were many attempts to revive the glory of the Roman Empire, but they were not crowned with victory. That which has passed cannot be reborn in its former greatness: it will pass into a different quality. This happened with Roman civilization and Roman culture. More than once we will see its reflection in the cultures of Europe and not only of Europe.

HIGHLIGHTING THE KEY POINTS

1. Until now, among cultural researchers, there is a debate about whether the phenomenon of Roman culture takes place in history. From its inception to its collapse, Rome concentrated, dissolved in itself, borrowed too many different kinds of cultural foundations of the defeated peoples and states. Simultaneously with these views, there is a very complete idea of which aspects of the existence of Rome-city and Rome-state are specific, about which realities of world culture are connected exclusively with the existence of Rome.

2. The main feature of the development of Roman culture was the improvement of political and legal relations. A person of Roman culture is characterized by existence as hom*o politicus. The state of a citizen, the feeling of a subject for a Roman becomes a matter of special pride. It lies at the basis of the ideal of man, his basic virtues.

3. The main contradictions of Roman culture are associated with the opposite of the high Roman ideal of man and his practical activity. Roman culture, in a sense, can be called not creative, but “using”. Nevertheless, even such a “user” mentality has the ability to adapt the realities of other cultures to their own reality, and vice versa - to extend their cultural realities to the conquered peoples.

4. Let's pay attention to the practical nature of all aspects of Roman culture, even its religion. The Greek harmony of the material and spiritual in Rome disintegrates, and the priority position is at the material principle. These moments are realized both in the knowledge of the world and in art.

5. Roman culture gave the world the foundations of civilization through the system of its statehood. Up to modern times, the world deals with the Roman type of state structure, and Roman law formed the basis of the legal culture of many states, especially European ones.

Chapter XV

BYZANTINE CULTURE

The formation of culture, like its death, is a long and contradictory process. The Roman legions conquered many different peoples with their customs, customs, religions. United under the auspices of Rome by force of arms, therefore, largely artificially, they could not have common views and goals. Phenomena characteristic of Hellenism (alienation of statehood from the population, skepticism and the search for the meaning of life by Stoics, Cynics, thinkers of other philosophical schools and trends) also existed in those territories where ancient culture appeared and developed - in the center of the Roman Empire and in the Greek provinces. More distant from the centers of this culture, lands and peoples at the same time perceived the samples and values of antiquity, and rejected them as alien to themselves. Almost a millennium and a half later, the English writer Rudyard Kipling(1865-1936) will write:

West is fuse,

East is East

And they cannot come together ...

But in the elements of the last centuries of the existence of the Roman Empire, the West and the East converged and coexisted, uniting the incompatible. Paganism and Christianity, obsolete and emerging relations in society, centrifugal and centripetal forces, pragmatism and mysticism laid the foundation for Byzantine culture.

Surprisingly, over the nearly thousand-year history of its existence, no ethnic unity and common language of this culture have emerged. There were no Byzantines as a nationality: they called themselves "Romans", that is, the Romans, spoke mainly Greek and Latin, although before the Roman rule the inhabitants of each of the provinces of the vast Byzantium had their own language. It is even believed that “the term“ Byzantine Empire ”was coined by historians to denote the Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople, ancient Byzantium, in order to distinguish it from the Roman Empire with its capital in Rome ... But the states“ Byzantium ”or“ Byzantine Empire ”, as and the people "Byzantines" were not in actual history. "Therefore, it is rather difficult to single out a special phenomenon of Byzantine culture, it seems to be blurred by the cultures of its constituent peoples. Most likely, it is a phenomenon of a transitional period." A transitional period means a time when the old and the new continues right there, partly in the same old, partly in something reborn. This interweaving of the old with the new and the special that is the result of this, becomes in the future the starting point of the main line of the subsequent stage of history. " old with new, Roman statehood, the Greek language and other phenomena conceals the meaning of the millennial period of the existence of Byzantium tii, which marked the beginning of the feudal system and the formation of medieval culture in Europe, but especially productively Byzantine culture was perceived and rethought in Russia.

For all its eclecticism, Byzantine culture still possessed a certain systemic unity. It is possible, although rather approximately, to identify the main stages of its development: IV-VI centuries - the period of formation; VII-VIII centuries - the heyday and finalization of its features; IX-XII centuries - a period of relative equilibrium; XIII-XIV centuries - decline and destruction, up to the conquest of the remains of its territory by the Turks. Characteristic feature Byzantine culture was that; that practically every next century of its existence was unique both in its achievements and in its destructive processes. Wars, often protracted, endless change authorities, the struggle of different parties, the struggle of the church and statehood and much more, accompanied by the death of the already created - all this, it seemed, should have determined the non-life of Byzantium, but nevertheless it existed for almost a millennium and created unique cultural values, the influence of which was experienced by many culture of peace.

Between East and West

In 395 the Roman emperor Theodosius I(347-395) divided the empire between his two sons: Rome and the western borders of the state went to Honorius, the East and the new capital created on the Bosphorus by Emperor Constantine I, Constantinople, built on the site of the Byzantine trading city. The eagle on the coat of arms of the Roman Empire became double-headed: its heads looked to the East and to the West. This circ*mstance was preceded by various internal and external processes. Charles Montesquieu wrote in the 18th century: “Rome was destroyed because all the nations immediately attacked it and tore it apart”. One of these parts was the Eastern Roman Empire, which sought to preserve the glory of the Rome-state and Rome-city and was later called Byzantium. Let's trace in general terms the process of its appearance.

The Romans called their city “Eternal City” and were proud of its beauty. The onslaught of the barbarians, who perpetrated a real plunder, became one of the reasons for the decline of culture and the death of Rome. Byzantine writer, contemporary of the siege of Rome in 410 by the troops of the Visigothic king Alaric I(c. 370-410), says that the Romans paid the conqueror 5,000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver, for which they had to melt gold and silver statues of the gods. But the rich ransom did not stop Alaric. "Pride" and "arrogant power of their power" - such expressions were used by the Gothic historian Jordan(VI century), characterizing the leader of the Huns Attila, but they can be attributed to all the then barbaric conquerors - Goths, Germans, Vandals ...

The barbarian attacks were not the main reason collapse of the Roman Empire, they only hastened it. In essence, everyone wanted change - the rulers, the nobility, and the common people. Rome took exorbitant taxes from the territories it captured. He destroyed and swallowed up the Greek, eastern and western lands and could no longer exist other than feeding in the literal and figurative sense of what was created in the Roman provinces. Therefore, the processes that caused irreversible changes not only in culture, but also in all aspects of Roman reality, came both from outside Rome and from within it.

Greece was also a Roman province, once flourishing, but now plundered and lying in ruins. Later Byron(1788-1824) in the poem "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" writes:

The land of the people of the overthrown gods,

A country of people, beautiful, like gods.

Valleys, groves, spurs of your mountains

They keep your spirit, your genius, your scope.

Temples are broken, palaces are crumbling,

The dust of your heroes scattered

But the glory of your deeds still thunders through the centuries.

These lines were written about the conquest of Greece by the Turks, but they are quite true in relation to the Roman conquerors.

Let us recall that the very consciousness of his belonging to the great Hellas, the consciousness that a Greek cannot be a slave, was important for the Greek. Great Hellas was conquered by arrogant, less developed people, who took out statues from Greece with whole ships, they destroyed the Greek ideas about the former Hellenic pride. But these same conquerors, who trampled on Greek values, considered it an honor “to buy Athenian citizenship for money, to immortalize their name in the Delphic sanctuary ..., to take part in the Olympic or Pythian Games ...”. Rome increasingly turned into a military power with unlimited imperial power. A magnificent court ceremony was brought from the East, the wealth of the court was amazing, and therefore, naturally, taxes also increased. The multi-tribal state had no grounds for internal unity. All that remained was to rely on a religion that would preach faith in one God. Such a religion, as you know, is Christianity, which was already discussed in the previous chapter.

Christianity played a dual role in Byzantium. On the one hand, it began as a persecuted and often secret religion of slaves, disadvantaged people and seekers of justice. But later Christianity entered into an alliance with the state already under Constantine I and further contributed to the destruction of ancient culture. Theodosius I banned the Olympic Games in 394, according to his decrees, pagan temples were destroyed, he himself directed the burning of an Egyptian temple and the famous library, which consisted of 700 thousand scrolls, in Alexandria. Both Feodosia and his heirs laid roads, erected aqueducts and defensive structures, using excellent construction materials antique temples... Thus, they destroyed their past, destroying the cultural memory of Rome and at the same time strengthening their unlimited power, creating the preconditions for the future society. But no society can rely on power alone; it also needs an appropriate ideological basis. Christianity became this basis for Byzantium, acting as its philosophy, morality, politics and even legal system.

Byzantium, which emerged in the 4th century, was significantly different from both Greece and Rome. As it should be during the transitional period, it carried both the new and the old, including ancient traditions that remained in the East much longer than in the West, where the destructive actions of the barbarians were more active. Byzantium included many eastern lands: Egypt, Asia Minor, Palestine, Syria, Greece, the islands of the Aegean Sea, part of Mesopotamia, Crete, Cyprus, Transcaucasia, the southern part of Crimea, and during the periods of successful military conquests - North Africa, part of Spain and Italy. Among the peoples inhabiting Byzantium were Greeks, Copts, Syrians, Armenians, Persians, Jews, Arabs, Georgians, Thracians, indigenous tribes of Asia Minor, who were at an almost primitive level of development, and later - Slavs and Latins. Without losing their own languages, customs and customs, they had a strong influence on all aspects of the life of Byzantium - from court etiquette to the way of thinking and the relationship of each individual with the world.

The vast territories of Byzantium on three continents (in Asia, Africa and Europe) were distinguished by a variety of climatic conditions and had many natural resources, so it retained the glory of a world power for a long time, admiring many European states with its splendor and splendor. Unlike Western Europe, rich and large cities have been preserved here - centers of crafts, trade and education. A feature of Byzantine culture is that “the highest flourishing of cities ... falls not at the end, but at the beginning of the history of Byzantium. While in the West many ancient city centers were washed away by the wave of barbarian conquests and desolate, Byzantium at the dawn of its history could rightfully be called a country of cities. " It is worth remembering only a part of them: Jerusalem, Beirut, Damascus, Ephesus, Corinth and others, which amazed the imagination of travelers and ambassadors. But over the long period of Byzantium's existence, they gradually lost their brilliance and significance, and by the period of the conquest of Byzantium by the Turks, only Constantinople still retained its former greatness.

The life of the rural population of Byzantium was difficult and changeable. Feudal relations developed long and painfully. Slave labor persisted and was used both in handicraft production and in agriculture, although it became less and less profitable. Some landowners provided slaves with land in order for them to pay the owner for its use, as well as taxes to the state treasury. Along with this, there was also a peasant community, often organized as a community of neighbors - microcomia: each member of the community owned a piece of land, but united with neighbors for joint work. Here again the duality characteristic of many aspects of Byzantine reality manifested itself: private ownership of land was combined with communal ownership. In addition to free peasants, there were columns - small tenants of land, who were gradually attached to it in various ways: either falling into debt dependence on the owner of the land, or because they were originally not free. The possessions of the feudal lords ( feud- land ownership) constantly absorbed the lands belonging to the communities, and became immeasurably rich. For example, one of such owners, Filaret the Merciful, had, in addition to land, 600 bulls, 100 working oxen, a herd of 800 horses, 12 thousand sheep. By the 7th-9th centuries, the church began to own a huge amount of land and wealth, while neither the church nor the monasteries paid taxes to the state.

Over the long period of Byzantium's existence, the feudal mode of economy managed to emerge, form and gradually decline, and this became one of the reasons for the collapse of the brilliant Byzantine world.

The features of Byzantium were most strongly manifested in the system of statehood, which absorbed much of what is characteristic of the states of the West and the East. From the West, Byzantium took the Roman state structure, Roman law, which is most noticeable in the laws Justinian I(482-565), adopted in the 6th century, during the period of the greatest prosperity of Byzantium. The form of government approached the eastern models. The ruler of Byzantium was the emperor (Greek. basileus), endowed with autocratic power, which was not limited by any organs, contracts or conditions. He himself had the right to execute, conclude alliances with other states, command the army. In his hands was the judicial, political and military power.

As in any state, especially the eastern one, in Byzantium there was a large staff of officials appointed by the emperor himself. They could influence both the decisions of the Basileus and himself, but even the legally conditioned existence of the Senate (or Syncl*te) did not become decisive under a strong ruler. The highest officials became especially active during the periods of power change. The specificity of Byzantium was that power was not inherited. Therefore, passions always boiled around the ruler, there were always forces ready to deprive him of the throne by any means, and “many Byzantine emperors did not rule for long and ended up being blinded, tonsured into monks, or perished at the hands of sent assassins”. Only in the last period of its existence, during the time of the Palaeologus, Byzantium finally recognized the hereditary power of the emperors.

The emperor of Byzantium is the governor of God on earth, but this is not an earthly deity of ancient Egypt and not a son of Heaven, as in China. This is a harsh and often merciless earthly ruler, commanding and punishing on behalf of God. The "Code of Civil Law" created by the emperor Justinian was especially cruel in relation to any protests against statehood. It is interesting that at its core the "Code" was based on the achievements of Roman law. It included four parts: the Justinian code - a collection of laws of the Roman emperors; "Digests or Pandects" - a collection of the most authoritative sayings of famous Roman lawyers; The Institutions is a systematic guide to the foundations of Roman law and Novella, written by Justinian himself. Recycling Roman Law. Justinian legislatively establishes the connection between the authorities and Christianity and the subordination of peasants and colonies to their masters. “Everyone must submit to his fate” - this is the main pathos of all legislation. The main achievement in the field of legal views of this time was the recognition of natural law, that is, the equality of all people by birth, and the inappropriateness of slavery to human nature.

Already in the early stages in Byzantium, the idea of a fusion of church and state emerged. The main condition for this union was the harmony of the Christian church and the Christian faithful emperor. On the idea of such harmony, the cult of the Byzantine Basileus, the emperor, the ruler of the entire Orthodox world, arose. This gave rise in Byzantium to the idea of its special role among other powers of the world, of the role of God's chosenness and the absolute correctness of its structure, which should be a model for other states.

Under the influence of Christianity, the idea of an ideal monarch arises. An ideal basileus should not only have military prowess, fearlessness and strength, according to the ideas of one of the rulers - Theophilact Simokatta(end of VI-first half of VII century), but also to be kind, fair and wise: “Being a lover of wisdom, consider that this porphyry (purple mantle. - A. B.) is a cheap rag that you wrap, and the precious stones of your crown are no different from the stones lying on the seashore, ”he advises the monarch. “Strive to earn not fear, but the disposition of your subjects, prefer reproaches to flattering speeches - they are the best mentor in life.” The ideal monarch should be selfless, caring for his subjects, and imbued with Christian piety. But reality never allowed these groundless hopes to come true. Lawyer and historian of the era of Justinian, this champion of equality, Dig Caesarea(500-565) in the work "The Secret History" describes him as a bloody tyrant, hard-hearted and rude.

In the minds of the population of the Byzantine Empire, there was neither a sense of unquestioning civil obedience, nor worship of the emperor as a deity. On the contrary, the Christian consciousness, calling for humility, was in a contradictory unity with the striving for freedom. The only attainable kind of freedom was inner freedom, possible only in the sphere of the spirit, but not in reality. This circ*mstance forms two tendencies of behavior in society.

On the one hand, Byzantium is shaken by endless uprisings that have nothing to do with the Christian desire for petition, mercy and humility. On January 11, 532, the Constantinople Hippodrome became the site of an uprising of the urban lower classes against the authorities and exorbitant taxes. An angry crowd shouting "Nika!" (“Win!”) Plundered the homes of aristocrats, laid siege to the imperial palace. Emperor Justinian wanted to flee, but, according to many descriptions of events, Empress Theodora said that “royal porphyry is a beautiful shroud”, that is, one born in purple must die in it (Greek. porphira"Purple" - the color of the emperor of Byzantium), Justinian, by cunning and bribery, lured the common people to the hippodrome and, having locked the gates, destroyed 35 thousand people. Other uprisings are known, violent, stubborn and bloody. They lie at the heart of rebellion and rebelliousness.

On the other hand, the desire for some kind of purity, integrity, for a deeper comprehension of the Christian faith gave rise to asceticism, hermitism, the emergence and rapid growth of the number of monasteries in desert places and cities. The role of hermits who retired to the mountains, desert or forests, and monasteries was very significant: it was believed that their deeds affirm the true faith in opposition to paganism. They were revered by the population, believing that voluntary privations, such as a vow of silence or standing on a high pillar (the most famous was Simeon the Stylite), brings them closer to God, gives them sacred knowledge. Emperors sometimes consulted their advice. Monasteries tried to directly influence the life of society and the state, acting as fighters against paganism, and most often ancient traditions. They preached obedience and humility.

The continuation of Byzantine statehood was diplomacy, perhaps for the first time taking such a significant place in relations between states. There was no more cunning and treacherous system of relations with close and distant neighbors than the Byzantine system, either in the East or in the West. “The Byzantine rulers were especially successful in their ability to smash a strong enemy with someone else's weapons, by cunning intrigues having set their allies on him ... imperial titles ”. The course went on setting one against the other, profitable marriages, the actions of experienced intriguers, bought or sent for secret purposes. Byzantium created a whole system of diplomatic service, completely subordinate to the ruler, in which the single goal for all ambassadors was to preserve the greatness of Byzantium.

It is easier to talk about Byzantium as a powerful state that united many peoples and territories, in many cases, it is about Byzantine culture, reminiscent of a phantom. It exists and does not exist: in every phenomenon of Byzantine culture we find Greco-Roman antiquity, Jewish, Arab, Persian and many other influences that make it difficult to distinguish a specific beginning in it, and sometimes simply obscure it. In addition, she did not have to go from becoming to flourishing, like many other cultures. It has no clear boundaries either in time or in space; it has repeatedly experienced periods of prosperity and decline. The course of Byzantine cultural reality can be connected with all certainty only with the historical boundaries of the existence of the state and its brilliant capital, Constantinople.

§ 2 "The city is higher than word and reason"

When the “eternal city” Rome lost its significance, Constantinople “picked up” the baton of “eternity”. Legends say that in 330, on May 11, Constantine I drew on the ground the boundaries of the future city with a spear, which was to be erected on the site of the city of Byzantium on the shores of the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara. It was a very convenient place connecting the East and West, here the trade routes of the Balkans and Asia Minor, the Black Sea cities and cities of Egypt, Greece and Syria were connected. In terms of its size, Constantinople surpassed Rome, and already a century after its foundation, about half a million inhabitants lived in it. At the beginning of the 5th century, under the emperor Feodosia II, new walls and fortifications were laid around the city, making it impregnable.

Constantine wanted to give the capital splendor and significance. For the construction of Constantinople, columns of destroyed pagan temples, differing in shape, color and size, details and elements of architectural decorations, were exported from Rome to the East. The central street of the city was decorated with antique sculptures, covered with a colonnade that protected the street from rain and hot sun. Palaces were built in an antique manner, into which noble families were forcibly resettled. It is amazing how antiquity and the new, Christian ideology merged in this city, how denial and affirmation, old and new, opulence and poverty, converged in it.

As in Rome, the city was crossed from south to north by the main street - Mesa, which was adjoined by transverse streets and lanes. Wealth and splendor rushed to the center, palaces and rich shops, public buildings, decorated with colonnades, were located along the wide, paved with stone slabs of the road. Streets farther from the center, closer to the outskirts, became narrower, and some did not exceed 2.5 meters. According to Roman tradition, an oval forum with two triumphal arches and a statue of Apollo in the middle was located in the central square of the city. The head of Apollo, taking into account the change in the religious worldview, and then the power, was first replaced by the head of Constantine, and later a sculpture depicting Theodosius was placed in this place.

Everything in Constantinople was supposed to amaze the imagination: buildings, decorations, way of life, entertainment, court rituals. Perhaps, for the first time, a city was created that was directly calculated to exist for show. Of course, Constantinople was the capital with all the attributes inherent in the throne city. But that wasn't what made him special. There were many capitals in Europe - Constantinople was alone, and it really surpassed all the cities of the world at that time until its conquest by the Turks in 1453. Russian writer Nestor Iskander(XV century), who came to Turkey in his youth and participated in the capture of Constantinople, in the "Tale of the capture of Constantinople" (Constantinople is the Russian name of Constantinople) mentions the words of the blessed Andrew of Crete: "Truly this city is higher than word and reason."

A consul was elected annually in Constantinople. After the election, the solemn procession moved from the consul's house to the senate, then to the hippodrome, where performances were given in his honor. To notify the local authorities, the consul sent to different provinces of Byzantium diptychs(pictorial or relief, carved works, consisting of two parts): on one side depicted himself (or carved his name), on the other - scenes of games in his honor.

The imperial household's lifestyle was even more pompous. For the emperor, special purple robes were relied on. The walls of his rooms with gold and silver utensils were covered with purple fabrics or covered with mosaics of amazing beauty and variety of content. In the 30s of the 9th century, many outlandish mechanical products were created for the palace "Golden Chamber", where ambassadors were usually received. In the essay Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus(905-959) “On the ceremonies of the Byzantine court” (the name of the original is “Explanation of the Imperial Ceremonial”) it says: “When logofet (official for foreign affairs. - A. B.) finished their usual questions, then the lions began to roar, the birds (on the seat of the throne and in the trees) begin to sing, and the animals on the throne rise at their feet ... At this time, gifts are brought in by foreign ambassadors, and after that they begin the organs play, the lions calm down, the birds stop singing and the animals sit down. " All these mechanical wonders, created for the reception hall of the Grand Palace by an outstanding encyclopedist, scientist and no less outstanding mechanic Leo the Mathematician in the 9th century, they were set in motion by water and were calculated to demonstrate in any way the uniqueness, uniqueness of Byzantium, its capital and ruler. In the introduction to his book, Constantine VII asserts that the imperial power, if it “appears in the decoration of“ proper rhythm and order, ”... reflects the harmonious movement of the cosmos created by God”.

In Byzantium they said: "In Constantinople, God has Sophia, the emperor has a palace, and the people have a hippodrome." The heart of Constantinople was the Great Imperial Palace. It was a whole complex of buildings and ensembles, the construction of which began under Constantine I. The ceremonial chambers, as was customary even among the Roman emperors, were located on the second floor and were surrounded by open terraces with fountains, the buildings were separated by gardens in which there were elegant pavilions and other buildings. The courtyards were decorated with colonnades, and covered passages, sometimes two-tiered, were built between the palaces. Russian traveler Stefan Novgorodsky in the XIV century he wrote about the Constantinople palace complex: “There is also a court called: the chamber of the faithful Tsar Constantine; and its walls are great, higher than the city walls, they are like a great city under the hippodrome, they stand by the sea ”. He found the palace, completed by many emperors of later times, who commanded to decorate the halls with mosaics, in the art of creating which Byzantine masters were especially successful.

The palace complex was adjoined by the temple of St. Sophia, built in the 6th century by the Asia Minor architects Anfimy and Isidor. Procopius of Caesarea wrote that the temple "reigned over the whole city, like a ship over the waves of the sea." At that time, it was a grandiose building in all respects. Severe and somewhat cumbersome on the outside, the inside of the temple was amazing. The huge rectangle was covered with a dome with a diameter of 31.5 meters. “From the east and west, the arches supporting the dome passed into two half-domes, and those, in turn, into three small half-domes (conchs). The space gradually grew from small domes to large semi-domes, and from them to the immense main dome. " From the inside, the central dome seemed to hang in the air as it rested on a round drum cut through by forty windows. This entire structure created streams of light in the temple, flooding the entire space, decorated with colored columns of red porphyry, granite, green and yellow marble. Mosaics of walls, floors, multicolored icons, mostly composed of multi-colored smalt - all this was as majestic as it was rich. The architects were required to express in architectural forms the “incomprehensibility and inexpressibility” of the Christian perception of the universe, to embody the idea of centralization and the power of the empire.

The buildings of Constantinople, like many other things, for example, domed construction, bore not only traces of Eastern traditions, but also Western, Roman customs, which continued to connect Constantinople with Rome, affirming both the greatness of Rome and superiority over it. The same applies to the third part of the palace complex - the hippodrome, which played a special role in the life of the Byzantines.

The hippodrome was adjacent to the palace complex and had two main entrances - from the palace of the Basileus and from the temple. It looked almost symbolic - Christianity and paganism were united by power. Designed for equestrian competitions (lists), performances of buffoons, trained animals, acrobats, the hippodrome accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. He amazed with the wealth of silk awnings over the stands, colonnade, statues of Roman emperors, athletes, bronze Hercules created in Greece. “The Emperor appeared in his box with the exclamation of 'Come up!' And he really rose like the sun, appearing in rigid robes of gold-woven fabrics, all strewn with green emeralds, bloody rubies and pearls. Whoever and in whatever form of competition turns out to be the strongest, Caesar was revered as an eternal and unchanging winner. The crowd gave him a standing ovation, and he took them for granted. The hippodrome was a symbol of the unity of the ruler and his subjects ”.

The hippodrome was also a source and site of political strife. Spectators of circus performances cheered for one or another horse quadrigue driver (two-wheeled chariots harnessed by four horses in one row; the horses were driven while standing). The four colors of the charioteers' clothing have spawned communities of fans who have adopted the colors as distinctive signs. Subsequently, these communities were transformed into parties, or dima connected by political interests. There were four such parties: levki(white), rusii(red), prasyns(green) and venets(blue). Gradually, the parties of Prasin and Veneti gained the greatest influence. At the head of the dims were persons participating in the political intrigues of the highest circles. They used for their own purposes the common people or those who, for various reasons, were affiliated with any party. The Venets were usually headed by representatives of the aristocracy, and the prasinov were an influential and wealthy merchant. During the competition, they received the right to "make demands on the emperor and his officials, approve or criticize their policies, participate in official ceremonies, and carry weapons." When the elections of the next emperor were taking place, in which the Senate, the army and the people participated, the leaders of the Dims tried to create mood among the people in favor of their interests. As noted by Z. V. Udaltsova, the emperors also actively used these circus parties, constantly inciting a struggle between them in order to avoid the unification of the people. The Nika! Uprising that we talked about became possible as a result of the unification of these two parties.

Diptych with circus scenes. Detail. V century

Constantinople was also a center of education and learning, and ancient education with its system of seven liberal arts served as a benchmark. In the initial period of the existence of Byzantium, the famous schools of thought Alexandria and Athens, where philosophy and natural Sciences... Schools accepted everyone. Although the tuition fees were high, the prestige of learned people was high: those with a classical education could improve their material and social situation by getting a position in the imperial or church chancellery. One of the emperors said that those who have mastered the seven free arts deserve a high place among the Romans.

In the large cities of Byzantium, numerous schools were organized following the example of the Greek gymnasiums. The instruction was in Greek, even in those regions where they used the local language in everyday life. In Byzantine schools, they continued to study from the poems of Homer and other Greek classics, and studied the deeds of ancient gods and heroes. Christianity, especially in the early period of Byzantium's existence, did not interfere with ancient tendencies in the education system. The Church only warned that the ancient sources, according to which the schoolchildren studied, were the cause of “mistakes and delusions,” but, nevertheless, encouraged their study, since it believed that knowledge of ancient literature also helps the understanding of the Gospel.

In Constantinople in 425, by decree of Theodosius II, a university was founded (the only one in the East), where they received a predominantly secular education. Departments of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, law and philosophy were opened there. Many scholars were invited by the government to teach at the university from various parts of the vast empire. In later times, various restrictions and even repressions began against teachers, but the university was not completely closed. When Justinian I, according to the testimony of some contemporaries, in need of money, tried to “abolish the title of lawyers and abolish the payment of professors and doctors,” Constantinople schools and the university retained their importance. In the 9th century, the most prominent scholars-erudites shone here, who did not find their use in Western Europe, for example, Lev the Mathematician: he was the first to use the letter designation of numbers, laying the foundations of algebra, invented light signaling for the transmission of various, more often military, information. During his time, studying at the university became not only prestigious, but also elite, because the best professors of their time taught there, and only children of noble parents could study.

In the XIII century, the crusaders, who split the huge empire into several powers, caused damage to the beauty and grandeur of the city, but even then Constantinople survived, and under Michael VIII Palaeologus(1224-1282) even somewhat revived some of its former greatness. Writer Nikifor Grigor wrote that Michael "cleansed the city and, destroying its ugliness, returned it to its former beauty, if possible." The final fall of Constantinople under the onslaught of the Turks, the terrible plundering of the city and its collapse shook the whole of Europe. Armenian poet Arakel Bagheshsky created a mournful cry around the city:

The unbelievers have surrounded you

And desecrated, Byzantium,

You have become a laughing stock

For the neighbors of the pagans, Byzantium,

Like a luxurious vineyard

You bloomed, Byzantium,

Today your fruit has become worthless,

Became a thorn, Byzantium.

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Agriculture in the ancient world was the main branch of material production. Greek farmers plowed with a pair of oxen or mules. No horses were used. A plowing tool (arotron, or ralo) was made from a single piece of wood or consisted of several parts of trees of different species. The Ralo had runners parallel to the soil surface and was supplied with an iron tip - a shovel-shaped head with bent sidewalls. The Ralo had handles separate from the drawbar. Along with the rally among the Greeks in the 5th century. BC. a primitive plow appeared. The plowman, with the help of a team of oxen pulling this plow, turned the earth over so that the sun warmed up its deepest part and burned out the roots of the weeds. Iron hoes were also used to cultivate the soil. Known wide hoes with pointed ends, pickax-type single-toothed hoes and two-toothed hoes for digging and loosening the soil. A boot, trident pitchfork and harrow were also used. The ripe crop was reaped with iron sickles, resembling modern ones in shape. Threshing was carried out with the help of livestock. The distilled grain was stored in granaries, the walls of which were coated with clay and burned to protect the grain from rodents.

The grain was ground into flour with grain graters and mills. Primitive mills consisted of two rectangular millstones. The surface of the lower millstone had grooves. On the upper millstone, a cone-shaped depression was made for filling grain, which passed into a through hole through which the grain fell onto the surface of the lower millstone. The heavy upper millstone was set in motion by means of a lever. The rectangular millstones only moved back and forth. There were also mills with round millstones, which revolved around a rod fixed in the center. Along with the aforementioned grain graters and mills from about the 4th century. BC. in Greece, flour milling machines began to be used, where the upper millstone was rotated by animals - donkeys, mules, horses and often slaves.

By about the 3rd century. BC. the simplest water flour-grinding mills began to be used. Apparently, these were whorl-type mills with a horizontally located water wheel equipped with curved blades. Such mills spread in Greece and Asia Minor earlier than in other areas.

The Greeks were well acquainted with horticultural techniques (for example, they knew the secrets of transplanting young trees - the size of the pit, the distance between plants, etc., they were inoculated). Gardening and viticulture required a lot of effort, but despite this, under horticultural crops in the III-I centuries. BC. the farms allotted most of the land, which was much larger than the arable field.

The Romans had a two-field farming system, but a three-field system with a corresponding crop rotation was already used. Particularly much attention was paid to the fertilization of the fields. The Romans classified fertilizers according to their value, made up the norms for their export to the fields. A system was developed for storing manure in cemented pits, where moisture was retained. Legumes were used as green fertilizers, which were plowed without mowing; used ash, compost for plant nutrition. The Romans were well aware that only systematic care of the land would allow for sustainable harvests. They usually practiced plowing twice, and three times for oily soils. Its depth depended on the quality of the soil (in Italy it reached 22 cm). For the harvest, in addition to the usual iron sickles, large sickle-shaped tools with bent ends were used.

According to the reports of Pliny the Elder, in the 1st century. AD mechanical devices for harvesting appeared on the large estates of Gaul. The work of the reapers was replaced by a primitive reaper. It was a box expanding upward on a two-wheeled axle. The front wall of the box was made lower than the others. Iron teeth bent upwards were reinforced along its edge. An ox, harnessed to short shafts behind the reaper, pushed it forward along the field. Ripe ears were captured by the reaper's tines, torn off and poured into a box. On the current, the grain was threshed with flails. For threshing, tribules were used - devices made of several upholstered boards, on one side of which sharp-ribbed stones were strengthened. A load was placed on top of the tribules and dragged along the current, knocking out grain from the ears. To obtain flour, improved hand mills were used. The lower stationary millstone was cone-shaped, and the upper one put on it had the shape of a funnel (grain was poured into it). Donkeys were commonly used to propel these mills. The Romans knew and water Mill... So, Vitruvius describes a large spade wheel, which was set in motion by water using two gear wheels set at an angle. This wheel turned the millstones. Like the Greeks, the Romans attached great importance to horticulture and viticulture. Roman winegrowers knew more than 400 grape varieties, they knew how to cultivate it and get new varieties. Were known and different ways propagation of the vine (layering, cuttings, grafting).

Livestock in Greece and Rome has existed since time immemorial. In Greece, for example, all livestock were divided into three groups. This found its expression in the specialization of shepherds: bucoly grazing bulls and cows, floymenes - sheep, and epoloy - goats. In the ancient world, they especially monitored the cleanliness of the barnyard, thus preventing animal diseases. Sick animals were separated and placed in specially fenced stalls.

The development of ancient states was accompanied by the improvement mining and metallurgy. In addition to iron and copper, lead, tin, silver, gold and various alloys were processed. Ores were delivered from mines, the development of which, along with the extraction of precious metals, has become one of the most important industries.

Iron ore was usually mined in an open pit. Silver ore was mined deep underground. There was no ventilation in the mines. The workplace was lit with clay lamps. All work was done by hand using an iron pick and spade, wedge and hammer. In Roman possessions in the silver mines of Spain and North Africa, along with traditional water pumping tools, were used Archimedean screws. The drainage screw was rotated by one or two slaves, who, holding on to the horizontal bar with their hands, stepped over the propeller blades. Such a mechanism "drove" underground streams, draining the passages for rock sampling. In addition to the Archimedean screw, other water-lifting devices were also used. So, in the Roman mines of Rio Tinto in underground chambers, the remains of eight pairs were found water-drawing wheels, which were set in motion by muscular force and raised the water to a height of 30 m.The diameter of such water-drawing wheels was 4.5-5 m.

Metallurgists of the Roman Empire smelted iron in high mountains by the method of strong blowing and along the way received cast iron. Pig iron was thrown away as unnecessary waste. The manufacture of steel has developed significantly. A number of regions of Greece and Asia Minor were known in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. thanks to the production of various grades of steel. During the time of Alexander the Great, Sinop steel was preferred for making carpentry instruments, laconic - for files and drills, Lydian for swords, etc. In Rome, steel production was improved. The best Roman steel contained more carbon than Greek steel, but its production had not yet become a separate branch of metallurgy.

Embossed processing of metal products is widespread in Greece - toreutics. Craftsmen-torevites made bronze mirrors, ceremonial dishes, ornaments for weapons, and various artistic utensils. For the production of embossed jewelry, they resorted to chasing, embossing, engraving, carving, as well as artistic casting in molds. The torevta used all kinds of engravings, metal and stone matrices, cutters, engravers, rasps and other tools as tools.

In the ancient era, the production of household and art products from clay, glass, wood and other materials was improved. Artistic ceramics were produced in many Mediterranean countries. Both hand and foot pottery wheels were used. After the earthen vessel was made, it was decorated with various ornaments and images (drawn and sculpted, relief). In ancient Greece, shingles were widely used, which was associated with the growth of cities and the expansion housing construction... In addition to tiles, the Romans began to produce bricks, ceramic pipes for heating walls and floors, etc. In Greece, from the 6th century. BC. production of small vessels of multicolored translucent glass was observed. The improvement of glassmaking is associated with the Roman era and, above all, with the discovery glass-blowing technology. Some researchers attribute this innovation to the 1st century. BC, others - by the 1st century. AD and consider it the birthplace of Syria, where the blow tube was invented. Its use has opened up new possibilities for the mass production of relatively cheap products. The Syrians moved the production of blown glass to Rome, and from there the art spread to all the provinces of the empire. For the manufacture of window panes, wooden forms were used. They were pre-moistened with water and then the glass mass was poured out, stretching it with tongs to the brim. With this technology, the size of the window glass usually did not exceed 30-40 cm.However, as the excavations in Pompeii showed, sometimes glass sheets measuring 1.0 x 0.70 m with a thickness of about 1 cm were also made.

Changes have taken place in techniques for the production of fabrics. The vertical loom was famous in Greece. It consisted of two risers and a horizontal roller placed in its upper part. The warp threads were fixed on the roller, the ends of which were pulled down by weights suspended from them. In the middle part of the machine there were two horizontal bars for the transverse removal of the warp threads and the passage of the weft with the transverse thread. In Hellenistic times, there was a shift in the development of weaving: the production of expensive multi-color, gold-woven carpets increased. Detailed information on the painting of the walls of the Pompeian houses is given about the technique and technology for making cloth. To remove fat from wool, the cloth was soaked in a special solution in vats and covered with a special clay that absorbs fat. Then the fabric was trampled in vats by feet and beaten on special tables with rolls, after which it was thoroughly washed with water and dried. The next operation was associated with the nap of the fabric, for which the skin of a hedgehog or a plant such as a thistle was used. White fabrics were fumigated with sulfur, pulling them over a hemispherical frame. After fumigation, the fabric was rubbed with special clay, which added strength and shine to the product, and for the final finishing, the folded pieces of cloth were placed under a press. The press consisted of a vertically placed wooden frame, in the center of which one or two wooden screws were fixed. The screws were rotated using a through rod, pressing on the horizontal boards, between which the tissue was clamped.

One of the most developed branches of material production was construction business, which reached a special scope in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. During the period of the emergence and heyday of ancient civilization, the craft of stonecutters became one of the main in this industry. The excavation of the building stone was usually carried out in open pits close to the construction site. Marble was mined both by open cut and in adits. For this, an iron pick, a chisel, a crowbar, wooden wedges and a sledgehammer were used. A saw and an ax were used to excavate limestone and sandstone. For the extraction of harder rocks, saws were used without teeth, pouring sand under the saw during its movement. The primary processing of the stone was carried out next to the quarry, the final - at the construction site when adjusting the construction products.

A distinctive feature of the skill of the Greek stonemasons was the construction of high columns using the dry method, i.e. without the use of mortar. The column was assembled from parts that were not completely processed and had protrusions for lifting on ropes. Before stacking "one on top of the other", the surfaces of the drums were leveled. In the center of each drum, a recess was made, where they inserted wooden thorn connecting both drums. The masons achieved a tight fit by rotating the drums around the axis. Walls were also built "dry" from stone blocks. For a better fit of their surfaces middle part deepened, then the rest of the plane was leveled. The horizontal rows of blocks were held together by iron brackets filled with lead. The pinnacle of the masonry business was the construction of an arch and a semicircular vault of wedge-shaped stone blocks, laid "dry". Such designs required careful stone processing, adherence to the required dimensions and shapes. When laying out an arch or an arched vault, a temporary wooden frame was used, on which wedge blocks were laid, starting with two lower (support) and ending with one upper (castle), which held the entire complex structure of the vault.

At the end of the IV century. BC. following the example of the Greek settlements in southern Italy, lime mortar was used. In the III century. BC. In the construction technique of the Romans, a very important discovery was made - the production of a binder pozzolanic solution from crushed rock of volcanic origin. Soon, on the basis of this solution, Roman concrete began to be obtained. Small crushed stone, broken brick alternated in even layers with cement mortar, forming an indestructible concrete masonry - "opus coementicius", which was not inferior in strength to stone blocks. In order to prevent crushed stone and cement mortar from spreading and retain the required shape, a temporary wooden sheathing was built - formwork. After the concrete hardened, the formwork was removed or moved on. Various buildings, aqueducts, as well as transport structures (bridges, roads, etc.) were erected from concrete, as well as from traditional building materials. Limestone, tuff, ceramic tiles, etc. were used for cladding. Lime and gypsum plaster was widely used. Houses were covered with marble slabs or tiles.

During the construction, they used mainly hand tools: cranked and simple levers for installing stone slabs, hammers for driving staples, shovels for applying mortar and planks with a handle for leveling it. The testing instrument consisted of a compass, a level, a plumb line, a square, a staff and a cord. A level in the form of an open groove filled to the brim with water was also known. Axes, hammers, saws, planes, chisels, adzes were used for carpentry and carpentry work on equipping buildings. The boards were sawn with a bow saw. A two-handed saw was also used. Hand drills and drills were used, which set in motion the bowstring of the bow. Separate wooden parts were fastened with iron nails. During the construction, complex mechanisms for lifting weights were also used. The mechanisms were set in motion by the muscular power of the slaves, as well as by means of simple ropes. Inclined planes were also used. For example, during the construction of the Colossus of Rhodes, inclined earthen embankments with wooden flooring were used.

In the ancient world, great attention was paid to the regular planning of cities. It was based on a regular rectangular network of straight streets of equal width, which formed blocks of the same shape and size. Each residential area consisted of several houses arranged in two rows. The walls of the outer facades of the houses were blank. Most of the windows were on the second floor, but not in all houses. The Greek cities were characterized by a high level of amenities and comfort. The city streets were wide and paved with stone slabs. Much attention was paid to the fight against dampness, free access of air and sun was provided, streets were greened, there was a good water supply. Water pipes (sometimes with artificial pressure) fed public water bodies; water was supplied there through ceramic and lead pipes. The 1 km long water pipe was built in the middle of the 6th century. BC. on the island of Samos. The sanitary condition of city squares, streets, courtyards was ensured by a well-organized system of gutters, lined with stone and covered with slabs; there was also a sewerage system. Roman cities also had excellent water supplies. The earliest Roman stone aqueducts were built from the 4th century. BC. Like the Greeks, they were built underground. From the II century. BC. began to build underground aqueducts on massive arcades. Aqueduct, built in 140 BC on arched supports made of cut stone (up to 15 m in places), supplied water for 91 km. In Rome (II century AD) there were 11 water pipelines, which gave from 600 to 900 liters of water per person per day.

The growth of the population of Rome already in the III century. BC. led to the construction of residential buildings with three floors. Due to the high cost of land, homeowners sought to increase the number of storeys in their rented house. Multi-storey and apartment buildings - insul by the end of the 1st century. AD there were over 46.6 thousand. They had 4, 5, or even more floors.

An important branch of the construction business of that era was the creation of artificial communication routes. There is almost no information about road construction in Greece. The art of road construction reaches its highest development in the Roman state. At the height of its power, the Roman Empire had 90 thousand km of highways (including 14 thousand km on the Apennine Peninsula), not counting dirt roads and roads covered with rubble (with the latter, the length of roads reached 300 thousand km). To indicate the distance on the roads, the Romans installed stone pillars or just large stones - milliaries every 1000 steps (1485 m). The milliarii contained information about the commissioning of the road, as well as the names of those whose efforts it was built. In the 1st century. BC. by order of the emperor Augustus, a golden milliarium was installed at the Roman Forum, symbolizing the center of the Roman Empire and the starting point of all Roman roads. In total, at least 23 roads diverged from Rome (converged in Rome) (“all roads lead to Rome”).

The development of sea trade in Greece was a prerequisite for the creation of commercial harbors, protected by breakwaters and breakwaters. In large seaside centers, extensive warehouses were built for storing goods, shipyards, docks for the construction of ships and their repairs. Such harbors were built in Piraeus, Syracuse, on the island of Delos, etc. During the Roman Empire, many navigable canals were built on the Apennine Peninsula, some of them were drainage channels. The Romans were engaged in the improvement of ports. Concrete and stone piers and other structures were built, including signal towers-beacons. The largest lighthouse of the ancient era was not built by the Romans, but by the government of Hellenistic Egypt in the 3rd century. BC. This is the famous lighthouse built on the island of Pharos in the harbor of Alexandria by the architect Sostratus of Cnidus under Tsar Ptolemy Sotor. The lighthouse was a monumental three-story tower with a height of about 130 m. The length of each wall of the first floor exceeded 30 m. The third floor - the lantern had a round shape. On its dome was a bronze statue of Poseidon. The lighthouse simultaneously served as a fortress (there was a large garrison here) and a military observation post. The Pharos lighthouse, like the Colossus of Rhodes, was considered one of the seven wonders of the world. From the VII century. BC. the Greeks began to build deck ships with a team of 50 oarsmen - penteconters and ships with two rows of oars - diers. Three-row vessels - triremes (rowers sat on three tiers) appeared in the 6th century. BC. The length of the trire was 40-50 m and the width was 5-7 m. Aminocles from Corinth is considered to be the inventor of the trire. Greek merchant ships were flat-bottomed with a wide hull, with a rising bow and stern. In addition to oars, cargo ships had from one to three masts; each of them carried one quadrangular sail. For sailing against the wind, Greek sailors used an additional triangular sail. Cargo ships were shorter and wider than military ships, and had a deeper draft. Their carrying capacity usually did not exceed 100-150 tons, however, ancient authors mention ships with a higher carrying capacity. Pine, larch, fir and other species of coniferous trees, occasionally oak, served as materials for the construction of ships. Roman merchant ships, like the Greek ones, were sailing, and only in rare cases were oars and muscular strength used as mechanical force. Usually on the mast of a merchant ship there was one rectangular or trapezoidal sail and a triangular sail on an inclined yarn at the bow of the ship. Such vessels were 25-30 m long and 8-10 m wide with a carrying capacity of up to 180 tons. The cargo was packed in the hold or on the deck of the ship.

The main means of transmitting messages was the dispatch of messengers on foot and on horseback. However, this kind of mail did not allow the establishment of regular communication between people. Pigeon mail was also used. Along with this, in ancient times, the transmission of news by means of signal lights was practiced - an early predecessor of the optical telegraph.

Notable successes in the ancient slave states were noted in military equipment. The main types of weapons in the ancient world remained various types of edged weapons: swords, daggers, axes, spears, darts, axes, as well as a bow with arrows. Already in the IX-VII centuries. BC. in connection with the emergence of Greek city-states and the need to protect them, a militia began to be created. Well-to-do citizens were attracted to military service, capable of acquiring expensive heavy weapons. The armor of the Greek heavily armed warrior (hoplite) consisted of a helmet, shield, carapace and leggings, two spears and a sword. Helmet, carapace and leggings were made of bronze individually for each warrior. The shields were round or oval in shape (the wooden frame was covered with leather). Outside, the leather was bound with sheet bronze. The spears were up to 2 m long. The hoplite's armament was completed by a double-edged, relatively short iron sword, which was suitable for delivering a thrusting and chopping blow. The form of the military formation of the militia was the phalanx - a closed formation of infantrymen, usually eight rows deep. Under Philip II of Macedon (IV century BC), a deeper construction began to be used in the phalanx - an average of 16 rows. In this regard, the soldiers began to arm themselves with sarrises - spears 5-7 m long. The phalanx had a powerful frontal blow, but did not differ in mobility and was vulnerable from the flanks and rear.

For the siege of fortresses, the Greek mechanic Demetrius Poliocretes invented a large number of siege structures. Among them were special shelters from projectiles, turtles for excavation work, turtles with battering rams, as well as galleries, through which it was possible to safely pass and return from siege work. The most significant building of Demetrius Poliokret was helepolis - a pyramidal moving tower on eight large wheels bound with iron tires. The facade of the tower, facing the enemy, was sheathed with iron sheet, which protected it from incendiary shells. The tower was nine stories high - up to 35 m and more. On each floor there were stone throwers and arrow throwers, as well as detachments of soldiers to storm the fortress.

The fruit of the Greek engineering thought was the invention of the polybola - an automatic throwing machine. Pulling the bowstring, giving the arrow and shooting in the polybole were carried out using an endless chain, which was set in motion by the rotation of a special gate. Throwing machines, depending on their power and the nature of the projectiles (stone cannonballs, arrows, incendiary vessels, baskets with poisonous snakes, infected carrion, etc.) were serviced by a team of 4-10 specially trained mechanics and their assistants. Stone throwers and heavy arrow throwers were intended to destroy not very strong enemy shelters, his weapons, as well as to destroy ships. Light arrow throwers hit the enemy's manpower. A projectile fired from a throwing device could hit the target at a distance of 100-200 steps; the firing range was about 300 m. In the Roman Empire military equipment received further improvement. The warrior was armed with a sword, a metal spear (dart) - a pilum and a long semi-cylindrical shield. On the head of the legionnaire was a hemispherical iron helmet that covered the shoulders and back of the head. The warrior wore a leather or lamellar shell that protected the entire body.

The main division of the Roman army throughout its existence was the legion. During the period of the republic, the Roman legion included 3 thousand infantry and 200-300 horsem*n. The legion split into three cohorts of a thousand people, the cohort was divided into 10 centuries - hundreds. In the era of the empire, the legion already numbered 6 thousand infantrymen and 120 horsem*n. The legion was divided, respectively, into 10 cohorts, the cohort - into three maniples, and the maniple - into two centuries. Each legion was assigned a certain number of throwing machines. The Roman army had military engineering units that built siege towers, sheds and covers. Their task also included the construction of pontoon bridges from boats, connected by a wooden deck, and the guidance of emergency crossings. Combat engineering has developed significantly. With the help of sapper units, grandiose work was carried out on the construction of ditches, ramparts and other embankments.

Engineering achievements of ancient rome. Architectural achievements of ancient rome (2024)

Roman bridges and roads

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